>War of the Austrian Succession – Battle of Hohenfriedberg

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France’s success at Fontenoy was added to by Frederick II almost concurrently in June 1745. Austria, still bitter about losing Silesia to the Prussians, sent Prince Charles of Lorraine with 60,000 Austrian and Saxon troops into Silesia. Frederick was not fazed by this offensive, because he believed Charles to be “stupid.”

Frederick believed Charles would cross the Riesengebirge (Giant Mountains of the Austrian Alps). He sent hussar detachments on a reconnaissance mission, which tracked Charles’ every move, and soon, Charles proved Frederick correct. Charles crossed the mountains, and Frederick was more than ready for the Austrian army. Charles’ army moved toward Hohenfriedberg Village, Poland, and the Saxons encamped near Pilgrimshain. Charles believed his position to be geographically sound as the Striegau river protected his front, while the Prussian army was across the river to the south.

Frederick’s assertion that Charles was “stupid” also proved exact, as the entire Prussian army marched northward in front of the Austrian force and crossed the Striegau river over a bridge and into the town of Striegau. From this new position, Frederick attacked the Saxons separately from the Austrians. He hoped to destroy Saxon influence and then turn eastward against the impotent Austrians. Charles was not entirely stupid, Frederick did use trickery to move an entire 60,000 strong army in front of the Austrians. His first design was to march at night, while the Austrians were asleep. Frederick ordered his men to leave the campfires burning in order to confuse the Austrians. No talking or smoking was allowed during the night march so as to remain undetected. Frederick also encountered his fair share of mistakes. The bridge used to cross into Striegau was too small for the entire army to cross. Troops bottlenecked, and only a few crossed by 700 am when Frederick’s commander De Moulin ordered an attack. The surprise was realized when a Saxon contingent skirmished with the newly arrived Prussians.

The Saxon soldiers were largely unprepared for the swiftly onrushing Prussian cavalry. Few Saxons assembled to meet the onslaught, and were quickly routed. Prussian infantry soon followed as the remaining troops crossed the Striegau river wherever they could. The Saxons were still waking from sleep, and could muster no defensive hold. By the time the sun had risen past dawn twilight, half of the Austro-Saxon army was destroyed. The remaining half was finally alerted and ready to engage the Prussian offensive. The quicker Austrian cavalry arrived to the challenge first, but were outmaneuvered by the superior Prussian Dragoons. Two lines of Austrian infantry arrived and opened fire into the Prussian ranks at close range. Regardless, the Austrians were now vastly outnumbered, and the wind literally changed to aid Frederick’s men. 18^th Century firepower produced a lot of smoke, which blinded soldiers. The wind cleared this smoke and revealed a hole in the Austrian ranks, while also providing cover for the Prussian Bayreuth Dragoons. The Dragoons spotted the gap, and ran through the hole well behind the Austrian front line. The 1,500 advance cavalry men ran down the length of Austria’s infantry cutting it to pieces. Once the first line was smashed, the Dragoons turned and smashed the entire second line. Austria was humiliated. The remaining soldiers surrendered in large numbers, as the 1,500 Dragoons inflicted several thousand casualties against the Austrians, while only suffering 94 itself.

Frederick gloriously won the day, and was from this point on called “The Great.” His victory was celebrated throughout Prussia and France for decades, and is still studied by generals today. His cavalry charge was also immortalized in song, the Hohenfriedberger Marsch, which many believed to have been written by the musician, general, king Frederick II himself. The Prussian victory signaled the real end of the Second Silesian War, and Maria Theresa was forced to sign the Treaty of Dresden after subsequent defeats throughout 1745. The Quadruple Alliance gains up to 1744 were lost, as France and Prussia ran untamed throughout Europe.

 

>War of the Austrian Succession – Battle of Fontenoy

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Thought 1744 and the Second Silesian conflict were largely uneventful, the war was still in full force. 1745 erupted along alliance lines as France and Prussia began to emerge supreme. The Quadruple Alliance of Britain, Austria, the Netherlands, and Saxony was agreed early in 1745, and it began to show strength in Central Europe. Frederick II was biding his time for the best possible moment, which came in the spring. Louis XV went headlong into Belgium, so his army was not available to the Prussian King for many months. Though unavailable to Frederick, the French set about to change the course of the war.

Late 1744 success along the Austrian border were soon built upon in the spring of 1745. Because the French were so successful in southern Belgium, Prince Charles of Lorraine marched 70,000 troops to counter further French advances. Louis XV responded by empowering Marechal Maurice de Saxe with 60,000 men in Flanders. British, Dutch, and Hanoverian troops descended upon Flanders as well, while Europe anticipated an immense battle, the largest of the war since Mollwitz in 1742. Soon France was outnumbered; however, the Allied commanders were to tremulous to attack the French. British dallying affected Parliament, and changes in government occurred, which would affect the British influence for the war’s remainder. Other governmental changes also influenced the war. The French champion for the Imperial throne, Charles VII died in January 1745. A new emperor was proclaimed, Maria Theresa’s husband Francis Stephen became Emperor Francis I, and he was hesitant during the peace process. His main hesitance had to deal with Habsburg gains during 1742-1744. Maria Theresa was not satisfied with how negotiations were progressing, so she decided to continue fighting what seemed to be a favorable war. Austrian forces hammered the Bavarians at Pfaffenhofen in April 1745. Bavaria’s ability to continue war was shattered, and it sued for peace. Austria’s success, however, freed French obligations to Central Europe. France could now concentrate solely on Belgium.

The combined Allied forces were led by King George II’s son, the Duke of Cumberland. He met with Allied commanders at the Hague, and then with his troops at Brussels a few days later in April 1745. Cumberland’s precocity saw him dream elaborate campaigns resulting in glorious victories. He believed that his troops could and would march on Paris to end the war within weeks of his arrival. Cumberland’s generals thought otherwise and impressed a more defensive posture upon the Duke’s mindset. Marechal Saxe believed he had little time to live, because he was ill with Dropsy, which was believed fatal. With his remaining days, Saxe wanted to inflict a massive defeat on the Allies. French soldiers were ordered to move upon the Scheldt river deep into Belgium’s heartland. Saxe began to feint his maneuvers, while establishing a main siege force against Tournay. Cumberland and his commanders were certainly confused by Saxe’s feigned attempts. Cumberland also believed the reports that Saxe was about to die. He was foolishly confident on the eve of what he thought would be battle at Mons, not Tournay.

Duplicity intact, Saxe waited for the Allied troops to begin moving to aid Mons. When troops began moving, Saxe seized his opportunity and began assaulting Tournay. Cumberland received word that Mons was not the target two full days after Saxe arrived at Tournay. A further two days dalliance were undertaken before Cumberland and the Allies reversed course. Compounding administrative failures, the weather further hindered Allied troop arrival. Saxe arrived on April 28; Cumberland arrived on May 9. Cumberland’s diary reveals further confusion over French troop numbers, positions, and maneuvers. Though confused, Cumberland was still confident that victory would be his. He could not know that the French Marechal de Saxe was vastly superior in almost every way.

Saxe believed that the Allies would try to advance toward Tournay through Fontenoy. In preparation for the Allied arrival, Saxe fortified Fontenoy. Allied spotters revealed French involvement at Fontenoy, and Cumberland decided upon this news to attack the French position. Fontenoy was well defensible naturally by height and forest. The plateau opened into a large field, perfect for the French cannons to obliterate Allied infantry. Allied forces opened the battle on May 11 through three wings. The British were on the right, the Hanoverians and Dutch occupied the center, and the Austrians were on the left south of Fontenoy. British reconnaissance failed to discover a strongly fortified French redoubt near the forest north of Fontenoy. Such a failure proved vastly serious. Cumberland ordered his general, Ingolsby, to capture the redoubt. Upon advancing, Ingolsby lost his nerve and the British began to wither. French artillery began opening fire on the center through the plains around Fontenoy to devastating effect. Cumberland simply ignored the growing problems surrounding his right flank. The Dutch approached French positions, while the French held fire. At a perilously, almost point blank, close distance, the French opened fire and killed most of the Dutch invading force. Those who were not killed fled the battle. A second attempt was mustered, yet met with the same outcome.

During nightfall Cumberland wavered between attack and retreat. He decided to attack with a sweeping infantry advance. What remained of the Allied army was regrouped and sent back into the fray. The Dutch again attempted to assault Fontenoy, and were again beaten. This time, the Dutch would not continue in the battle. Victory seemed certain for Saxe, who still had to defeat the remaining English under Cumberland. Three lines formed throughout the Allied ranks and arched uphill toward Fontenoy about 10:30 am. Light artillery was employed by both armies, which attempted to soften the opposition. English troops came into close contact with their French counterparts. French artillery mercilessly pounded the advancing English army, and destroyed entire ranks. Yet, Cumberland’s men maintained perfect order despite heavy losses. The British did succeed in pushing the French back, and may have actually won the day had it not been for a third strong French redoubt. British Infantry famously met the French Infantry atop the ridge. Various taunting ensued, and the French opened fire upon the British. Then came the British reply, which inflicted devastating casualties upon the French, who were driven backward. A gap opened in the French ranks, which should have been exposed by the Dutch who had since left the battle. Saxe, extremely ill, now showed himself on the battlefield. He personally barked out orders to repair the buckling French lines. His arrival turned retreat into an offensive masterpiece. The French Cavalry was sent against the British Infantry, but they were beaten as well. At this point, Louis XV believed the battle lost, to which Saxe replied “We must all conquer or die together.” With the British now in the French camp, further cannonades from the uncaptured French redoubts began halting the British Infantry. French Cavalry and Infantry newly organized by Saxe turned the tide, and forced Cumberland’s men into retreat.

Before the battle’s end, Cumberland maintained his infantry’s order, and tried another advance, which proved unsuccessful. Though unsuccessful, the French could not inflict any further serious damage upon the British who had maintained amazing order while retreating. Voltaire later wrote that had the Dutch remained in the conflict during this period, the French would have been surrounded and cut off. He also said that Louis XV and the future Louis XIV would have been killed. Napoleon later quipped that such failure on the Allied part gave France the victory, and further extended the Ancien Regime another 30 years. Saxe took advantage of these failures and launched a series of counterattacks to ensure his victory. The French had enveloped the British, who could not pivot a turn into the French redoubts. Counteroffensives muted any further British strength, and the French soon proved victorious 12 hours after initial skirmishes opened the battle. Allied troops began retreated from Fontenoy in perfect order. Cumberland sobbed at his loss, while Saxe was lauded an instant French hero. Saxe, however, did have his detractors, as he did not pursuing the Allies and inflicting a general rout. Saxe argued that he and his men were exhausted, and must regroup. He proved correct, as the Allies were not much opposition in Belgium for the War’s remainder. Saxe took the entire Belgian region almost unopposed in future years after this decisive battle.

 

>War of the Austrian Succession – 1744/Second Silesian War

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France, though already involved on a limited scale, became completely embroiled in Europe’s expanding war. Frederick II needed help against Austria’s successful backlash. Louis XV was certainly up for the cause against his generational enemy. France and Prussia agreed a new, more encompassing treaty. War against Austria was promptly declared in 1744, which not only added to Austria’s foes, but also to her friends, as Great Britain came to Austria’s aid.

French officers designed a plan to knock England out of the war early, and then punish Austrian intransigence. A new Jacobite uprising was to be sent into England, and James Stuart – another Stuart claimant – was to be installed as King of England. Typical of so many other invasion attempts, weather played an imposing role. Cataclysmic storms destroyed much of the landing craft, and many lives were lost in the Channel. Further plans to invade were scrapped, and France turned to the eastern front. Louis XV personally commanded 90,000 men, who were to invade Belgium. French aggression was successful, and Ypres as well as well as Menin fell to Louis XV. From this point in 1744, both armies tried to outmaneuver one another. The British Alliance (Britain, the Netherlands, Hannover, Austria, and other lesser German provinces) gained an upper hand when Prince Charles advanced upon Phillipsburg, and cut off the new Marechal Coigny’s supplies. Marechal Coigny responded in kind, and fought through the British Alliance’s lines toward Strasbourg. Louis XV, realizing what was taking place along the Rhine river, broke from attempting to invade Belgium. In a coordinated effort, Louis XV and Frederick II marched into the Alsace-Lorraine region. Austria was severely stretched beyond military limits, and could not oppose the Prussian march. Frederick II captured Prague by September 1744.

Maria Theresa again employed emotional panic to raise a much needed army. A second Hungarian insurrection accompanied with Austrian diplomacy raised both defensive as well as offensive forces. Saxony switched alliances and joined Austria. Meanwhile, Prince Charles shrank from French power, but was spared casualty, because of the debacle at Metz regarding Louis XV’s illness and his mistress, Madame de Chateauroux. Frederick tried to shadow Prince Charles, but his attempts overextended the Prussian position. Hungarian insurrectionists inflicted a number of minor defeats against the Prussian King, who fell back upon Prague. By the time Frederick had reached Prague, Prince Charles rejoined battle and surrounded Frederick’s position. Frederick had to surrender Prague, as the Prussians retreated back into Silesia late in 1744. France finally stabilized enough to capture Freiburg, and attempt another Belgian invasion. The next year, 1745, was to be an eventful one, full of major engagements.

 

>War of the Austrian Succession – Silesian and Bavarian Phases

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To fully comprehend the War of the Austrian Succession events must be viewed as parts of a whole. The first actions of the war are known as the First Silesian War. This Silesian War was short-lived, as the already mentioned Prussian invasion of Silesia. Frederick II’s maneuvers were so devastating that Maria Theresa agreed to the Treaty of Breslau in 1742. Prussia was given almost total control of Silesia, all but what remained of Austrian Silesia, and the town of Glatz. Though the Silesian War was abrupt, and complete, an ever growing conflict was taking place further southward.

While Austria was coping with the First Silesian War, Saxony decided to invade Bohemia in 1741. Austria, however took advantage of weak Saxon support. As quickly as Saxony invaded, Austria repulsed Saxon troops even faster. Within a few years, Saxony, who was hoping to take advantage of a seemingly golden situation, had to turn to Austria for help against Prussia.

Another Elector tried to gain a foothold. Charles Albert of Bavaria contended for the Imperial title, and actually won the title in 1742. Bavarian soldiers marched into Upper Austria as Frederick II invaded Silesia in 1741. Bohemia fell in the next year, and Charles Albert crowned himself King of Bohemia. Charles Albert further strengthened his position by secretively securing French and Spanish aid against Austria. French troops began arriving in Bohemia, when Maria Theresa then proved her strength in weakness. She travelled to Pressburg (Bratislava), the then Hungarian capital, to address her plight. With an impassioned and emotional speech, Maria Theresa gained full support from the Hungarian nobility. Soon, a quickly assembled army was created to expel Franco-Bavarian influence.

Maria Theresa’s new army quickly removed the invading forces from Upper Austria and Bohemia, but Charles Albert was still elected as Holy Roman Emperor. Oddly enough, the Austro-Hungarian army invaded Bavaria in 1742. During this time, Maria Theresa proved to be rather shrewd. She openly published the negotiated agreements of her and Frederick II’s truce. By so doing, Maria Theresa placed Frederick II in an entangled mess with his allies. As the First Silesian War was not yet ended, Frederick II went on the offensive. Now Emperor Charles VII of Bavaria hoped to receive aid from Frederick II’s invasion. He asked the Prussian King to divert Austrian forces away from Bavaria. Frederick also received aid by France, Saxony, and what remained of Bavaria’s army as he captured Olomouc and Glatz. Their force, however, could not stop Austrians from capturing Linz. Brno soon followed, as Frederick could not stem the Austrian tide. What seemed to be imminent Austrian failure was now becoming Austrian success. Frederick, being outmaneuvered, had to fall back toward Silesia. Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine, in service of Maria Theresa, pursued Frederick to Chotusitz, where Frederick II’s cavalry won the day. A panic spread through the previously supreme Austrian army, which gave Frederick II supremacy once again. To illustrate how entangled this war became, Frederick II’s victory at Chotusitz in 1742, was what brought the First Silesian War to a close.

War continued to rage in 1743. Franco-Bavarian troops proved to be incapable of working together. Commanders openly argued, and soldiers did so likewise. Charles VII, though now Emperor, could not maintain a viable army. Austrian forces returning from their loss at Chotusitz found solace in hammering the Bavarians at Braunau. England entered the fray under King George II, who moved troops along the lower Rhine river. France viewed this action as a casus belli, and assembled a force to oppose the English. The French under Noailles put George II in peril. He was forced to fight his way out of a complete Franco-Bavarian surrounding. George II, King of England, also had interest in this conflict as he was Elector of Hannover. Hannoverian troops combined forces with Austrian and English forces against the Franco-Bavarians at Dettingen in June 1743. Against all odds, George II fought through the French ranks and inflicted a severe defeat upon the Franco-Bavarians. French troops were force to retreat across the Rhine and back into France. France then planned to invade Belgium, which brought the Netherlands into the conflict on Austria’s side. This war was expanding rapidly.

 

>War of the Austrian Succession – Introduction

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France was soon to realize that she would have a new and great enemy, Prussia. As it was Prussia was just one of the many kingdoms that comprised the Holy Roman Empire. However, with the rise of Frederick Willelm I and Frederick II, Prussia was at this time an emerging power. She needed France’s help against the old French enemy, the Habsburgs, who controlled the Holy Roman Empire. Frederick Willelm I and Frederick II were Hohenzollerns, a powerful northern German house. They decried succession proceedings, which sought to install Maria Theresa upon all of her father’s, Emperor Charles VI, thrones, except the Holy Roman Empire. The Empire had never had a Queen, and Maria Theresa was not to become an Empress. The issue, according to Frederick II, was the Salic Law – which provided only for male succession to the Imperial title, and not the husband of an Austrian Queen.

Charles VI realized issues would arise after his death. He knew that Maria Theresa could not claim the Emperor’s throne, so he willed his lands to his daughter, but desired his son-in-law Francis-Stephen to become Emperor. Charles skillfully outmaneuvered most diplomats, and secured acceptance of the Pragmatic Sanction in 1713. Decades later, the accepted Pragmatic Sanction was breeched as Frederick II invaded Silesia. Frederick claimed that the 200 year old Treaty of Brieg granted Prussia the Duchy of Brieg. Frederick hoped to expose feminine weakness in Maria Theresa as a ruler. Other rulers soon followed Frederick’s lead, such as Bavaria’s Charles Albert who in turn claimed the Imperial throne. Maria Theresa was not weak, but she needed help, fast.

Prussia had long been at peace, but this did not mean she was weak. Frederick Willem I created one of the modern world’s first professional armies. He organized and drilled the Prussian military constantly, which meant they were ready for war at a moment’s notice. Other European armies still had to be levied from militias, which could take weeks to months to form and train. As a result, Prussia invaded Silesia with no opposition, and no opposition would arrive for months. Prussian military forces occupied all of Silesia, thus doubling Prussia’s size and natural resource capacity. Wisely, Prussian soldiers treated this newly occupied territory humanely. Though quartering was necessary, and done, those quartered troops did not loot, rape, and murder any of the Silesians.

Against the soon to die Cardinal Fleury’s wishes, Louis XV desired to enter this war. Louis had hoped, as did other monarchs, to cash in on Habsburg weakness. Fleury was not so sure Austria was weak. No matter, in 1741 France allied itself with the Anti-Austrian cause, which included Prussia, Spain, Bavaria, Saxony, and other lesser states. Maria Theresa also had allies, powerful ones such as England, Russia, and the Netherlands. The Silesian War, as Prussia’s invasion was called, soon included the War of Jenkins’ Ear between England and Spain, and almost all of Europe’s nations. The war would not be contained to just Europe, but it was spread to the New World as well, where it became known as King George’s War. Louis, by the end, certainly should have listened to his former tutor, and now dead Prime Minister Cardinal Fleury.

 

>Louis XV’s Youth

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Phillippe’s regency was ruled well enough, excepting the Mississippi Bubble. He desired to maintain peace throughout Europe, most especially within France’s own borders. He underwent secret meetings to ally France with recent enemies England and the Netherlands. Such agreements were made, and Austria soon joined the “Triple” Alliance thus creating a “Quadruple” Alliance. Spain under Louis XIV’s grandson Phillip V, however, would prove to be a nuisance. Phillip renounced his previous denunciation to the French throne, causing a small stir. French and Spanish armies even came to blows in Sicily, as Phillip desired to gain what was lost with the Treaty of Utrecht.

Phillippe would not live to see Franco-Spanish tensions conclude. He died in 1723. Louis XV also turned 13 during this time, which meant no more regency, yet he was still too immature to govern. A Prime Minister was chosen, Duke Louis of Bourbon, who was a man of no strong nor sound character. He deferred much of his judgment to a mistress Madame de Prie. Madame de Prie quickly imposed her opinions. She did not like the idea of Louis XV marrying the Spanish Infanta with whom Louis was betrothed. De Prie began searching Europe for a better choice, and found one in Poland’s Marie Leszcynska. It was hoped that Leszcynska and Louis would quickly have children and thus end Spain’s successional desires upon the French throne. This decision and choice were to be Louis de Bourbon and his mistress’ greatest contribution, as Louis XV dismissed Louis de Bourbon in 1726. Louis XV chose his tutor the 73 year old Cardinal Fleury as Prime Minister.

Fleury was an able minister. He was well beloved by Louis, and respected by the French. His domestic and foreign policies was also undertaken with diligence, which helped to re-establish France for a time. (Louis would undo all of that soon enough). Fleury opposed the Jansensists, who were losing power amongst the clergy, but gaining power with the commoner. Jansenists were congregating in the Saint Medard Cemetery, because it had been viewed as a place of miracles. Fleury outlawed the meetings, but the Jansenists remained defiant. Turmoil grew, especially against the Jesuits, but for the time being no clear action ended the Jansenist fight.

Because Fleury desired to maintain peace, France could continue to rebuild herself after years of Louis XIV’s wars. Yet, Fleury could not keep France out of war altogether. Because alliances were made, France was obligated to become involved either for or against Spain or England. When the War of Jenkin’s Ear broke out, Fleury involved France against England, but only on the seas. Fleury was trying to wrest some control away from the now dominant British Royal Navy. France fought one other war during Fleury’s Ministry, the War of Polish Succession. Louis’ Father-in-Law, Stanislas Leszcynska, realized a new opportunity to regain the Polish throne after Augustus II died in 1733. A Diet elected Stanislaw as King; however, a rival Diet elected Frederick Augustus to be the Polish King. Fleury was not for any involvement in this conflict, but Louis XV was. Extremely advanced in age, and with no vigor to withstand Louis XV, Fleury capitulated to Louis’ demands. Louis had hoped to gain Lorraine from this war, while putting his Father-in-Law back upon the Polish throne. Frederick Augustus, however, easily won victory over Stanislas and Louis. The French, however, realized the impending danger of Habsburg power sharing a border with France. French troops invaded and occupied Lorraine. The initial gusto for war soon waned and European diplomats reached an agreement at the Treaty of Vienna in 1735. Stanislas was given Lorraine as his duchy, with the provision that upon Stanislas’ death, France would assume control of the region. Aside from these two involvements, no other war plagued France under Fleury.

Fleury’s predilection for peace allowed an unparalleled French growth period. True Louis XIV and Jean-Baptiste Colbert brought France to lofty heights, but Fleury accomplished much more with much less. He had to rebuild France after Louis XIV’s wars and John Law’s disastrous economic experiment. Fleury appointed Philibert Orry as Comptroller General. Orry earned a stern reputation as the “Bull set loose in Versailles Park.” His disregard for rich and poor alike allowed Orry to make untainted decisions, and ultimately benefited France as a whole. He instituted the Corvee, a sort of welfare taxation system that demanded the poor to work for the Crown anwhere between 8 and 40 days a year building and repairing highways. Such a system built the greatest road network in Europe, but did not cost the Crown any money. Orry made certain that none of the Corvee would be used for any Royal expenditure, but the Crown would not need extra money; Orry balanced the budget. No one had been able to balance France’s budget for decades, not even Jean-Baptiste Colbert. Orry’s reputation could only grow, and it did. He re-established the French currency after the Mississippi Bubble, and drastically increased French Mercantilist exploits. France became rich again, but it was not to last.

 

>War of the Spanish Succession, Conclusion – Treaty of Utrecht

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After Mons fell, the Allies made no significant advances into France. Marlborough soon realized that his powerbase in England was crumbling. Marlborough gained power mostly because of his wife’s close relationship to Queen Anne. As the War unfolded, Queen Anne’s patience was tried often by the Duchess of Marlborough. A quarrel ensued concerning mutual friends (or enemies depending on how one looks at it), and the Duchess would not back down. After Malplaquet, support to continue the War was lagging. Queen Anne, who had previously praised Marlborough’s previous triumphs did not even acknowledge the victory at Malplaquet or Mons. All that Marlborough had achieved was on the brink of failure. When the Whig government, which supported the War, was replaced by Tories, who were against the War, Marlborough’s days were numbered. His wife was dismissed on charges of embezzlement, and the Marlborough’s left England to travel Europe.

England’s ally, the Holy Roman Empire, underwent changes as well. Emperor Joseph died, and the next in line was Archduke Charles, the same man championed as King of Spain. Charles became Emperor Charles VI, but all were not happy. Such a uniting of Spain and Austria would also upset the European power balance. While this was occurring, Marlborough was winning his last few battles, and was to be recalled late 1711. The Duke of Ormonde assumed Allied control, but he was no Marlborough. British diplomats also began to secretly negotiate with Louis’ minister Marquis de Torcy, unbeknownst to the Dutch and Austrians. Due to Ormonde’s ineptness, and cowardice it must be said, French losses were quickly recovered as Marechal Villars re-conquered lost lands by 1712. With the Battle of Denain, all Allied will to continue fighting was broken. The British insolently ordered troops to leave Denain as fighting began. This left Prince Eugene alone against the French, and he was crushed. French power grew from victory to victory. Barcelona was subsequently taken in the face of Allied collapse.

The War was all but over when Great Britain and the Netherlands agreed to the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. All counter-warfare ended in Barcelona on September 11, 1714, which is today celebrated as the National Day of Catalonia. Austria continued fighting France until the Treaties of Rastatt and Baden were signed. Spain continued conflict with Austria until 1720 when Spanish power was defeated during the War of the Quadruple Alliance.

Other points of note from this war include fighting in the New World. The War was called Queen Anne’s War in North America, as British and French colonies often raided one another, though with little success. Piratical affairs also became the norm throughout the Caribbean Sea, as the Spanish, Dutch, French, and English held many colonies. The only successful raid came upon St. Kitts when the English under Christopher Codrington pushed the French off of the island in 1702. Outside of this action, treasure ships were captured, or sunk, as fleets tried to destroy opposing economies.

With the Treaty of Utrecht war ended, and Europe entered a new era, the Balance of Power or Concert of Europe period. France saw Phillip V crowned King of Spain, but Phillip had to renounce any claims upon the French throne, which he did renounce. Phillip gained not only Spain, but also the Spanish colonial empire; however, he had to part with Milan, Naples, and Belgium, which became Austrian. Gibraltar and Minorca, one of the Balaeric islands, were officially awarded to the British after their conquests earlier in the War. Slave trading rights were also awarded to the British in Spanish American colonies, the infamous Asiento.

Phillip began to rule Spain along the same pattern that his grandfather, Louis XIV, ruled France. Future Spanish history would illustrate the folly of Phillip’s decision. He tried to centralize all Spanish Kingdoms under the throne’s power, but the proud nationalities scoffed at this action, laying the seeds for the future Spanish Civil War. Allied pre-war desires to push French borders back to 1648 status were not realized, as the borders were maintained. France agreed to end support for the Jacobites, and recognized Queen Anne as the legitimate English Monarch, though she would be the last Stuart leader of England and succession again became an issue after her death. Louis would also soon pass in 1715, and with his death, his era ended. Louis’ legacy did not end; however, as Europe would forever be changed. Louis altered French history, which became a central and pivotal nation during the Modern Age.

 

>War of the Spanish Succession, Part 5 – Almansa and Malplaquet

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Marlborough’s victory at Ramillies opened all roads for his free passage. He continued to capture French fortresses well into 1707, with little to no opposition. His ally, Prince Eugene, followed up on Marlborough’s brilliant victories, and won many battles in Northern Italy – none more important than at Turin. France had lost Belgium, Italy, and borderlands. It had seen Bavaria beaten out of the war. Misery breeds misery, and Portugal was happy to add to French anxiety.

Portugal sent an army into the final French-held region, Spain. Marquis das Minas captured Madrid, and held the city for a few months. Phillip V received aid from one of James II’s illegitimate sons, the Duke of Berwick. Together Phillip and Berwick recaptured Madrid, but the Portuguese presence remained. A second invasion attempted to retake Madrid, but the Franco-Spanish armies engaged battle outside of Madrid at Almansa. The Earl of Galway led his force against Berwick, who masterfully employed field artillery against Galway’s cavalry. A route ensued, as Galway recovered much of eastern Spain for Phillip V. Galway moved further to take Valencia and other surrounding cities, thus strengthening the French claim on Spain. From this point onward, no major battles were engaged in Spain for war’s duration.

Louis XIV closely watched a developing conflict in Northern Europe. He had hoped to draw the Swedish into war on his side. This would have been a great boon to his army’s lagging morale, but because Louis persecuted the Huguenots, the Swedish King Charles XII, an avid Protestant, deplored Louis. Charles XII instead turned his attention toward Russia, and spurned Louis’ advances. Louis had no time to react, because Prince Eugene, working from a new power base, invaded Southern France. The French capably halted Eugene’s advance, but had to return focus to the north, as Marlborough began to move once again.

In 1708, Marlborough took advantage of further French military problems. This time the French commanders were at odds with one another. Notably, Louis XIV’s grandson, the Duke of Burgundy, and Louis’ main commander Marechal Vendome clashed. Burgundy did not want to engage Marlborough directly, Vendome did. Either way, Marlborough took advantage of French dalliance, and sent a strong force into France. Two battles raged, Oudenarde and Lille.

At Oudenarde Marlborough again proved supreme. He organized a series of flanking maneuvers that encircled the French who were beaten mercilessly. The only thing that saved France from total destruction was daylight, it ran out. Marlborough was now free to move on Lille, which he did, and successfully captured. Louis’ France was now in dire straits. Money was running out, and battlefield victories were nowhere to be found. Louis opened peace negotiations to end the war. Yet, such negotiations were not well received.

Louis offered Spain and its empire to the Allies. He wanted to keep Naples, Italy for France. Louis also offered to fund Phillip V’s expulsion, but on this point, negotiations ceased. The Allies demanded that the French be the ones to expel her own choice for Spanish Monarch. Louis would not do this to his own grandson. Instead, outraged, Louis chose to continue fighting. He campaigned to bring fresh recruits into an already large French army, and the plan worked.

Fresh recruits were desperately needed, and certainly realized in 1709. Marlborough tried to invade France three times. All proved nequient, and came at a high cost. Marlborough united with his ally Prince Eugene during one campaign as they advanced on Paris. French troops met the Allies at Malplaquet in September 1709. The French maintained a defensive posture following Marlborough’ dominance. Marlborough, however, moved to capture Mons, which Louis could not allow. Louis sent word to break defensive shackles and attack. His Marechal Villars did so on September 11, 1709. Throughout the course of battle a series of charges, defensive holds, counter-charges, and further defensive holds destroyed many lives. Marlborough proved to be successful by the standards of the day, because the French army left the battle by day’s end. Though the Allies won, they suffered severe losses, which mounted more than 21,000. The French lost just under 10,000. Regardless, the objective was met, and Mons fell in October 1709. Marlborough and his Allies could not build from this victory, because casualties were too immense. Politics would soon gnaw at the Allied success, and Marlborough’s victory at Malplaquet – the bloodiest battle of the war, and of the 1700’s – was his last. 1710 would see France find new success, though not overwhelming.

 

>War of the Spanish Succession, Part 2 – The Battle of Blenheim

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1704 brought a decided superiority to the Allied cause. Marlborough assumed complete control of the Allied armies, and maneuvered skillfully around French positions. Dutch and English troops advanced southward into Germany, much to Dutch chagrin, though this move proved successful. Eugene of Savoy invaded northward from Italy to cut off the combined French and Bavarian army. To this point, France was putting Vienna under direct threat, yet Marlborough’s quick thinking brought France into battle, which ultimately saved Vienna.

Marlborough realized the dire situation. He wanted to move a combined allied force against the French, but the Dutch were reluctant. Marlborough then undertook a campaign that was as skillful as it was duplicitous. The Netherlands was well known for not sending armies too far outside her own borders. Such a legacy actually helped Marlborough in the end. He began making and carrying out plans to move southward along the Moselle river. French troops under Marechal Villars kept pace with the Allied force, but did not attack. Marlborough kept his plans a secret, because he knew they’d be rejected. After a few days marching, Marlborough reached the Rhine, where it was assumed that he’d attack the French. Instead Marlborough crossed the Rhine into Germany. France now believed that Alsace was in danger. While the French waited, Marlborough added 5,000 more troops to an ever growing army that started at 26,000 and was now well over 40,000. Marlborough also created a diversionary tactic based upon French fears. He set about making bridges and siege works in a feint against Phillipsburg. The French took the bait. France’s ostensible confusion proved disastrous. The Dutch were now very convinced that Marlborough’s plan was correct. They sent more aid, as did the Danish. The combined force then moved into position to protect Vienna by June 1704. Five weeks was all that Marlborough needed to outmaneuver both politicians and generals. Five weeks was all he needed to move and expand an army. Five weeks was all it took for that army to move 250 miles. By all accounts, this was an astonishing undertaking, but this was only the beginning.

Marlborough met with his other commanders, Prince Eugene and Louis of Baden, to create a plan. They had 110,000 men at their disposal to stop the French advance on Vienna. Eugene took 28,000 to check Villeroi and Tallard, the French commanders. The remaining 80,000 combined to form one army, and marched against Bavarian positions. With Bavaria in danger, the French had to change plans, but this was to prove dangerously inept. French communications were faulty at best, and foolish at worst. All decisions had to pass through Louis in Versailles, which would take a long time. Word came three weeks after a decision should have been made. The French were to reinforce their Bavarian allies if need be, but be sure to defend Alsace as well. Both armies now postured for conflict. Marlborough needed better circumstances, so he successfully invaded Schellenberg, though incurring heavy casualties. France could have gained an upper hand at this point, but infighting and dallying disrupted any French offensive. French movements simply could not maintain Marlborough’s pace, and equipment, horses, and men broke down.

Further problems such as the peasantry and poor decisions plagued the French. Marlborough then undertook a scorched-earth policy, which deprived the French of food. Maneuvering was now complete, and Marlborough drew France into battle by August. Both armies now stood glaring at one another across the Danube River near Rain. The Franco-Bavarians made the first move as they crossed the river on August 9. 56,000 Franco-Bavarians marched toward 52,000 Allied troops outside of Hochstadt, near Blenheim. Marlborough knew the moment was right, and he was ready.

Across four miles of forest, towns, and farms, battle erupted on August 13. Marlborough assaulted Tallard, while Prince Eugene diverted the French general Marsin. A third force moved on Blenheim, which was left virtually undefended. French leaders panicked, and made an immense blunder by deploying forward troops against the English at Blenheim. Chaos ensued as too many soldiers stampeded one another. Fierce resistance broke when Marlborough commanded Blenheim to be surrounded, and a final assault was made. Thousands were captured as Blenheim fell.

While Blenheim was being taken, Prince Eugene was suffering. He was being hounded by Marsin at Lutzingen. However, aid soon arrived from Danish and German troops, which allowed Eugene to make a victorious assault on French artillery and infantry. Regardless, the French held out, and forced Prince Eugene back in disarray. Though Eugene was proving unsuccessful, Marlborough’s campaign bore much different fruit. He crossed the Nebel river, and absorbed a French offensive. The English forcefully moved the French back, and created confusion among the French ranks. French troops then fled the battlefield. French cavalry, however, halted further Allied success. Yet, during this action Marlborough’s genius plan proved itself. In the face of fleeing troops, Tallard sought reinforcements. None could be found, as Eugene, though unsuccessful, and Blenheim falling, Tallard was left with a small force against Marlborough’s main assault. Disaster quickly engulfed the Franco-Bavarians. The new danger caused the French to release Prince Eugene’s conflict for Marlborough’s offensive. Eugene and his other detachments maneuvered in position to surround the French. Artillery under Colonel Blood joined the battle, and pounded the French position mercilessly. French ranks remained firm, but were cut to shreds. They could no longer endure the struggle, and by 5:30 in the afternoon collapsed under pressure. Now in full retreat, the French were destroyed almost to a man. Those who escaped drowned while trying to cross the Danube to safety. Marechal Tallard was also captured while such mayhem ended any French defense. Lutzingen soon fell, though the remaining defenders fought valiantly. Blenheim also remained brave, but capitulated by nightfall.

Marlborough was hugely successful. He proved himself more than able, a genius. His actions saved Vienna, and subsequently knocked Bavaria out of the war. He wrote a hasty note to his wife, who was a close friend of Queen Anne, to declare victory. France lost a commander, Tallard, and more than 30,000 men. Louis was forced to admit defeat, a hard prospect for the aging, proud monarch. Marlborough followed this great victory by capturing more towns along the Rhine, Danube, and Moselle Rivers. He desired to bring the war to France, but had to break the French ring of fortresses first. Marlborough’s actions turned the war on its head, and left Louis reeling for the next five years, as will be detailed.

 

>War of the Spanish Succession, Part 1

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Haggling continued between French, Spanish, Austrian, and English officials. No one was left satisfied. Jean-Baptist Colbert realized that no one could be satisfied, and fighting would happen anyway. When this logic reached Louis’ attention, Louis decided to act more boldly than he had ever acted. Disregarding all claims and previous treaties, most notably those with England, Louis declared his grandson, Charles of Anjou, King Charles V of Spain three weeks after Carlos II died in 1700. Charles also claimed the entire Spanish colonial and domestic empire, which immediately angered William III and Leopold I as well as many other opposing magnates. Louis, however, enjoyed a period of disarray amongst his enemies. During this time, Louis acted insolently by closing all Spanish trade to the Netherlands and England. Such action galvanized English opposition against French aggression.

In the meantime, William organized an agreement with the Austrians and his Dutch allies at Den Haag. This treaty allowed Charles V to remain Spain’s king, but awarded Austria previously held northern Italian regions. Trade was also reopened between Spain and the Dutch, but another fateful death occurred, that of James II. Louis agreed to recognized William III as England’s monarch with the Treaty of Ryswick, but reneged after James died. Louis proclaimed James’ son, James Francis Edward Stuart, as English King. England now wanted war.

Europe eased into war late 1701. Austria made the first moves, as a Savoyard force invaded Milan. France came to Milan’s aid, which spurred England, the Netherlands, Austria, Prussia, Hanover, and almost the entire Holy Roman Empire to oppose Louis XIV. Only Bavaria and Cologne supported Louis, as Portugal switched sides soon after war broke out. England seemed destined for failure as William III died in 1702, yet this proved to be a stroke of good fortune. William, though an extremely able ruler, was never known for his battlefield prowess. Queen Anne would resume England’s war effort, but with great assistance from her great, and even perhaps untrustworthy, advisors Sydney Godolphin and John Churchill, the 1^st Duke of Marlborough (from whom Winston Churchill descended).

Early skirmishes proved to be successful for the allies, as French generals were often replaced. The Anglo-Dutch Navy was vastly superior against the inept French Navy. Marlborough with Dutch and German support then invaded Belgium. He captured Liege and other various French strongholds, while HRE allies traversed the Rhine. Landau fell to Louis of Baden, as all seemed to be going against France. France’s Bavarian ally, however, stemmed the tide by defeating Louis of Baden, who was forced back across the Rhine. Once landed, Louis of Baden was attacked by the French under Villars at Friedlingen. A French success was soon hampered by a Naval loss. Admiral Sir George Rooke obliterated an opulent Spanish treasure fleet at the Battle of Vigo. Marlborough also continued throughout the next year to cause French angst. He forced Cologne out of the war by 1703. French power would tip toward its favor in spite of such heavy losses, as Villars and Maximillen II Emanuel of Bavaria soundly defeated Louis of Baden at Hochstadt. Villars, shockingly enough, resigned his post in protest after Vienna was not subsequently taken. France then planned immense undertakings to destroy Austria, while capturing Vienna, but none of these plans came to fruition as Portugal spurned its French alliance. Marlborough would also prove himself a worthy roadblock to French success. His skillful maneuvering adroitly overextended French resources, which led to a series of brutal French losses beginning in 1704.