>Thirty Years’ War, Swedish Phase, Part 1

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With the Catholics and the Holy Roman Empire firmly in control, arrogant insolence showed during the diplomatic negotiations following Denmark’s defeat. Emperor Ferdinand II wanted a number of issues brought to pass, such as his son to be in line for the Emperor’s throne. To bring his demands to pass, Ferdinand had to make the electors happy, as well as outside nations, which included Spain and France. Ferdinand’s blunders began almost immediately after Christian IV of Denmark was defeated.

Mistakes abounded first when Denmark received most of her lost territory back, much to Wallenstein’s chagrin, at the Treaty of Lubeck. Denmark simply had to agree that it would not interfere within the Empire. Wallenstein voiced his opinion that such lax treaty terms would prove dangerous, and possibly could bring Sweden into the War. Next, Ferdinand at the behest of a number of his aids, produced the Edict of Restitution, which demanded all lost Catholic territory since the Reformation be returned to Catholic control. The Protestant Electors flatly refused both of Ferdinand’s demands. Catholic Electors also proved to be uneasy with Ferdinand’s growing power. In return for their votes, the Catholic’s wanted Wallenstein removed from army command. They also desired that the army, now large, and unimpeded, be shrunk by two-thirds. Wallenstein and his army were an immense burden on the Empire, as his army lived off of the land, and Wallenstein paid his men through plunder. Their brutality, though reasoned necessary , cost him his support. Ferdinand complied and relieved Wallenstein.

International demands were also made during the process after Denmark capitulated. Spain was aiding the Holy Roman Empire, and the H.R.E. was aiding Spain against the Dutch. When Spain further asked assistance against the Mantuan’s in Northern Italy, France cried foul. The French ambassadors impressed upon the Electors to reduce Imperial military power. When Ferdinand asked the Electors to send support to Spain, the Electors agreed with the French, and stood against Imperial involvement in Spain’s affairs. France was not yet done diplomatically. Spain gained the upper hand against Mantua, and sacked the city in 1630. France panicked and agreed to the Peace of Regensburg; however, Louis XIII would not sign. France was not to be at war, but did not have an army. French ambassadors sought to bring Sweden into an alliance against the Habsburgs of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, but to do so, they had to negotiate peace between Poland and Sweden, who were involved in a separate war. Peace was agreed. With Poland pacified, Sweden mobilized to invade Germany.

Meanwhile, with Wallenstein dismissed, and the army shrunk, Count Tilly was installed as head of the army. He was not ready when Sweden landed in Pomerania. The Empire was uncertain how events would now unfold after such a meaningless few months of diplomacy ended. By the middle of 1630, Wallenstein, who had warned of impending Swedish belligerence, was proved correct. Gustavus Adolphus II, King of Sweden, brought his well trained and experienced army to Stettin, and forced Duke Bogislav XIV at gunpoint to sign a treaty. Bogislav wanted to remain neutral, but Adolphus would have none of it. Immediately, Adolphus proved much more successful than Christian IV or Waldstein during their previous campaigns. Even more amazing is how Adolphus accomplished his goals. He had no allies, but willed his way to power everywhere his army marched. Eventually, Adolphus did find what he craved, an ally with deep pockets – France.

The French, who were now eager to stand opposed to the Habsburgs, were not militarily able to fight, yet. Instead, once Sweden made intentions known by invading, France worked to diplomatically clear the way for Gustavus Adolphus. Adolphus assumed control of the Protestant cause, and France funded Adolphus’ outstanding army with the Treaty of Barwalde. Soon, France would be more directly involved, and Gustavus Adolphus would prove to be a rather successful thorn in the Holy Roman Empire’s flesh.

 

>Thirty Years’ War, Bohemian Rebellion

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Bohemia, as previously written, did not want Ferdinand as their next king. They wanted the Protestant, Calvinist Frederick V of Palatine. However, Matthias, the Emperor overlooked this, and made plans for Ferdinand’s accession to the throne both in Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire. Upon Matthias’ death in 1619, Ferdinand was to be coroneted King and Emperor. Bohemia, already in open revolt made plans to secure allies against the ensuing Catholic invasion. Ferdinand, also began to secure allies, as he was not yet in the position to fight. These two actions made what could or should have been a short war involving only a few regions, into a large war involving most of Europe, and even European Colonial Empires.

Bohemia sought admission into the Protestant Union coincidentally led by Frederick V, their choice to be King. Bohemian leaders sent messages promising the throne in exchange for assistance. However, problems soon surfaced, as other Bohemian leaders promised the same throne to the Duke of Savoy and the Prince of Transylvania. Catholic Austrians intercepted the lying letters, and publicized them extensively, thus destroying early Bohemian support. The remaining Bohemian allies were consolidated into an army under Count Jindrich Thurn.

Count Thurn moved quickly. He invaded into Catholic controlled lands, and laid siege to Vienna in 1619. Thurn was under the impression that chaos was the order in Vienna, so he did not use siege technology against Vienna. While Vienna was under siege, allies in the east took to the offensive. Bethlen Gabor, the Transylvanian Prince and the Ottoman Turk Emperor Osman II created an alliance, which was to bring a large force into Catholic Poland. The Polish-Ottoman region of the War exploded in 1620. The Ottoman Turks were victorious, effectively taking Polish support away from the Holy Roman Empire in 1620, yet it was too late. Bohemian armies were defeated at the Battle of White Mountain a few months after Ottoman successes. The Ottomans returned home not being a major factor during the latter phases of the war.

Count Thurn, still outside of Vienna, was now threatened. He lost communication and supply lines, as Catholic armies were victorious at Sablat. The siege was broken, and the Bohemians needed to regroup, which they did under Thurn and Count Mansfield. With reorganization, the Bohemians allied themselves with Upper and Lower Austria, who were also in revolt. This alliance effectively deposed Ferdinand as King of Bohemia in 1619. These occurrences brought the Spanish Habsburgs into the war beginning in 1621.

First, Spain sent Ambrosio Spinola to Vienna with an army. Spain also convinced the once Bohemian ally, Protestant Saxony to fight on the Catholic side. In return, Saxony was to be awarded Lusatia, one of the rebelling Bohemian regions. With forces in place, the Spanish led army invaded successfully throughout northern and western Bohemia. Spanish forces quelled the rebellion in Upper Austria, as Ferdinand’s army ended conflict in Lower Austria. Their rear now protected, both armies met and moved further into Bohemia. Frederick V’s army was pinned down at the aforementioned, decisive Battle of White Mountain. Bohemian forces were defeated, with many, such as Thurn and Mansfield, fleeing to fight another day. Frederick was outlawed in the Holy Roman Empire, and all of his land holdings were distributed to Catholic nobility. Indefatigable, Frederick survived outside of the Holy Roman Empire, raising support in Scandinavia and the Low Countries for the Protestant cause.

Remaining Protestant support fled toward The Netherlands. Count Mansfield and Duke Christian of Brunswick could not remain together as an effective military force. Mansfield was paid off by the Dutch to remain in East Friesland. Duke Christian returned to fight in Saxony, where the Catholic military genius, Count Tilly soundly destroyed Christian’s army at Stadtholn. With this news, King James I of England, also father-in-law to Frederick V, convinced Frederick to forget his involvement in the war. Protestants were defeated, and Catholics were posturing, thus frightening other non-belligerent nations by 1625.

 

>Thirty Years’ War Introduction

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Though the entire world was not at war, all of Europe most certainly was at some point between 1618 and 1648. From a hindsight standpoint, this war was undoubtedly inevitable. Europe was emerging from a millennium of Catholic domination, and the “Barbarians” were now becoming, or were already, civilized. Much of what was destroyed in Ancient Rome had now resurfaced during the Renaissance. The Reformation, also springing to life during this emergence would prove to be the long, lit wick to massive gunpowder kegs.

Europe was largely governed by the political arm of the Catholic Church, the Holy Roman Empire. This Empire was hardly a true empire. It was more of a collection of regional German States, including various other provinces outside of present day Germany. Each of these kingdoms had rulers known as electors, because they would meet at a Diet, and elect a governing Emperor. Each King was sole ruler of his territory, but owed his allegiance to the Emperor. A close, but not precise example would be Governors of each State in the United States, and the President. Thus, the Holy Roman Empire, was much like a republic, without the people actually electing leaders. Depending on the kingdom, some of the people did have choices, and a voice to make those desires known. The greatest choices made during the 16^th to 17^th centuries centered upon religion. After Martin Luther’s challenge was laid down, many northern kingdoms followed Luther’s point of view. In the Catholic dominated southern states, no challenge was tolerated, therefore creating a split in the Holy Roman Empire. Eventually two kingdoms would emerge. The Habsburg family in Austria championed Catholicism, as Prussia rose to the Protestant cause. Certainly, the Thirty Years’ War is not that simple. Many political, religious, and military maneuvers occurred during this complex age, for instance Catholic France fighting for the Protestants.

Ever since Martin Luther’s stand against Catholic Rome, the Holy Roman Empire had to figure out ways to deal with the Protestants. Initially then Holy Roman Emperor Charles V wanted to destroy all Protestants, but he could not. He instead had to deal with another threat, Islam. For almost two decades Charles was fighting with the Ottoman Turks, eventually halting them at Vienna. Once this threat was satisfactorily stanchioned, Charles returned his attention to the other heretics. During those two decades, Lutheranism spread rapidly, and became organized. Charles may have been able to end all Lutheran hopes in the 1520’s or 1530’s, but by the 1550’s it was too late. Protestantism was a viable foe, and an agreement had to be made. At Augsburg, Germany an agreement was made, and a confession outlined this new Christianity. Lutheranism was now a recognized church in the Holy Roman Empire, much to Catholic ire.

Lutheranism spread northward into Scandinavia, as other newer ideas spawned from the Catholic foundation. John Calvin, the trained Catholic lawyer wrote his philosophical treatise The Institutes a year after he finished Law school in France. This was peppered with much Catholicism from Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and other prominent Catholic theologians/philosophers. But it did have a few notable differences, which were pulled from Luther’s previous statements. Both Calvin and Luther thought it necessary to read the Bible in common vernacular, something with Catholicism forbade to anyone. Calvin and Luther also, to differing degrees, believed that salvation was not determined by the Church, but by God. (Luther was closer to being correct than Calvin, according to the Bible). Calvin’s ideas, being closer to Catholicism, were more readily acceptable to questioning Catholic churchgoers. However, no provision was made to this Calvinism at Augsburg. The Catholic elite violently rejected Calvinist ideas and establishment, especially in The Netherlands and France (more on this in subsequent posts).

Religion was now overtly mixing with politics throughout Europe. Catholicism was losing control fast, but did not want to vacate such power without a fight. After all, the richest, most powerful families were Catholic, therefore the richest, most powerful countries were also Catholic by monarchical choice. Spain, still the most powerful country in the world during the late 16^th and early 17^th centuries, was involved in many religious/political conflicts that lead to the Thirty Years’ War. She tried to conquer England with the ill-fated Armada in 1588, was involved in a long conflict and ultimately lost The Netherlands (1560’s to 1609), and tried to create many alliances through marriage. France, though Catholic was involved in political/familial battles between the Bourbon and Habsburg families, not to mention the Guise, Stuart, and Medici. Scandinavian powerhouse Sweden was also interested in carving out an empire in Northern Germany. Many skirmishes were fought and subsequent treaties were signed forestalling the larger conflict, but by May 1618 peace was forsaken.

The first of four phases of war resulted from the succession of Holy Roman Emperor Matthias II. Matthias died without an heir to succeed him. Matthias moved to make Ferdinand II heir to the throne. Ferdinand, Jesuit trained, was violently Catholic. Protestants in Bohemia and Hungary knew Ferdinand’s background and intentions, and voiced opposition to Ferdinand’s accession to the Emperorship. Regardless, other Protestants backed Ferdinand, and he was elected to become Emperor once Matthias died. Ferdinand moved to consolidate his power over Bohemia by sending representatives to rule in his absence. These representatives, Vilem Slavata and Jaroslav Borzita, were forced to endure a mock trial upon arrival. After the trial, Slavata and Borzita were, according to legend, thrown from Castle Hradshin. They fell fifty feet into horse dung, but lived. With the attempted murder of the King’s regents, war could not be avoided. Thus, what became known as theSecond Defenstration of Prague brought Europe past the brink, and into war.

 

>Who’s Going to Hell, Part 2

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After the once Italian dominated Papacy was moved from Rome to Avignon, France, the French Monarchy could and did dominate “The Church” until 1377. Offices were directly influenced by Phillip IV and his successors, showing a distinct change in church/state matters. The Pope before this time could make or break any monarchy, but that Papal power was vanishing. Phillip turned The Church into one of his own forces, and made France extremely powerful.

Seven Popes ruled from Avignon. This, though embarrassing turn of events, reorganized “The Church’s” power into an even more regal-like institution. Popes created new and revived old ways of raising money. Taxes for crusades, Benefices, and Tithes were used to raise money for “church projects”, but was in turn spent on fashionable clothing, lands, parties, and other church offices. Corruption was openly on the rise. “The Church” had to deal with one more shattering issue, The Plague.

When the first signs of The Plague began to appear, Europe had no idea what was in store for Western Civilization. Rats carrying diseased fleas stowed away on merchant ships from the Middle East. Plague had been seen before, Justinian’s Byzantine Empire saw an estimated 100,000,000 die of The Plague. Justinian himself was also a victim, but he did not die as a result. 1300’s Europe, was a more dangerous hotbed for disease. Houses in newer cities were close, plumbing was non-existent, sewage was thrown into the streets, and hygiene was awful. Such living conditions made it impossible to stop disease from spreading. Waves of The Plague brought fear of God’s Judgment upon the Continent. Traditionally, one would turn to plead to God help. However, with current Church events, the commoner was losing faith in “The Church’s” ability to reason with God. More so, The Plague inflicted “The Church.” What good was “The Church” if it could not get God to stop spreading death? Counter-insurgent religious groups began to form against the once mighty “Church”, thus in truth beginning the early seeds of The Reformation movement. Prominent among these new groups were the Flagellites, so named because they whipped themselves with a flagella, the Lollards, the Cathars, the Hussites, and the Albigensians. If God could not be reached through the Pope, there must be another way man began to reason. What remaining power “The Church” did have was used to devastating effect in an attempt to reestablish “godly” control. Many were murdered in the name of Christ. Others, who escaped persecution were excommunicated.

It did not matter what “The Church” attempted, it’s power was being shattered. Then came the folly. The Papacy was in Avignon for 68 years, when Pope Gregory XI decided to move it back to Rome. Gregory had to move back to Rome. Rising Italian city-states, most notably Florence, were threatening the Papal States. Florence came to blows with the Papal States as opposition to the Pope was at fever pitch. Gregory excommunicated Florence for her opposition to Papal forces. Gregory arrived in Rome in 1378 to deal with rising tensions, but he died. Urban VI was elected the next Pope, but he spurned the French Cardinals, who then elected Clement VII as Pope. Urban VI promptly excommunicated Clement, and vice versa. No quick resolution was found. Soon Europe was split and warring. Each rival pope had many supporting factions throughout the entire continent, thus bringing the all of Europe into war.

Efforts were made to fix the matter early, but all attempts proved insolent. In 1409 the Council of Pisa was convened to deal with the matter after 30 years of rivalry were doing considerable damage both politically and religiously. But in spite of an agreement being made, both warring supporters rejected their own Popes in favor of yet another Pope, Alexander V. The three Popes now excommunicated each other and their followers. No one knew, from “The Church’s” standpoint, who was going to Hell.

Finally, after five years of three Popes, the Council of Constance was assembled. This council is rather nefarious for many reasons famously for condemning John Huss and John Wycliffe. Wycliffe, who was already dead, was posthumously excommunicated, his bones were exhumed and burned. Huss, who was promised safety to the Council did not return home. He was lied to, and in 1415 burned at the stake. After five years of meetings, the Papal question was finally “resolved” the three claimants were rejected or excommunicated if they refused to abdicate their claims. Martin V was chosen as Pope in 1419. For a short while there were four Popes, who promptly excommunicated one another. Support for the other three claimants was lost within a few years, and Martin finally ruled uncontested in 1429. Within the next few decades, the rotting corpse of the Medieval Catholicism was fighting for its life. In that fight, Luther reminded his hearers of this disgraceful episode.

 

>Who’s Going to Hell, Part 1

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Today, one generally thinks of cloisters, convents, monasteries, and churches as peaceful, holy places. Church goers attend expecting “a blessing”, “comfort”, “entertainment” maybe even doctrinal conviction. During the High Middle Ages, no comfort could be found as the Plague was killing swathes of people everywhere. No one could escape it, not even “The Church.” No blessing could be found within “The Church”, but what was happening in “The Church” was certainly entertaining, morbidly so in all aspects. Boccaccio wrote his epic story cycle The Decameron, and Dante penned his outstanding masterpiece The Divine Comedy during this period. Both tales overwhelmingly deal with sinful horror, depravity, and futility. One other writer looked to this time period for inspiration, Martin Luther.

As Luther saw it, “The Church” was putridly corrupt. Luther realized his sin, and painfully sought absolution, but never found any peace. He travelled to Rome, hoping to be inspired. His inspiration did come, but not because “The Church” was good, but because it was evil. He saw a Church sponsored and organized prostitution ring, illegitimate clergy-children, gambling, drunkenness, gluttony, revelry, murder, sin, sin, sin. Luther was jarred. “The Church” was a farce. Popes were homosexual, bisexual, womanizers, murderers. Dante put two of them in Hell. Luther would come to argue that “The Church” was putting millions in Hell, blasphemously in the name of Christ. Once Luther began questioning the unquestionable, he was a marked man. This did not stop his pen, however, but increased his fervor. Luther spent countless hours writing, translating, rewriting, studying, and teaching. He became the first popular writer of the modern era, not because he was greater than Dante, but because of the printing press. Now, he could write, and those writings could be mass produced. One of the pamphlets written by Luther illustrates who “The Church” really is, The Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy.

The fecundity of Luther’s title may escape modern readers, but no one missed it during his day. A Bible reader will immediately see two allusions for which Luther was certainly aiming. The first is found in Daniel with Judah being conquered and held in Babylonian Captivity for 70 years. Judah was the remnant who did not, initially serve idols. When they turned, God’s prophesied judgment came with Nebuchadnezzar. A second allusion was also intended, the Harlot out of Revelation 17. Such shockingly powerful statements would have been Luther’s death sentence, had it not been for men who saw that Luther’s exacting comments were on target. There is one other allusion, not from scripture, but from history.

From 1294 to 1303 the contemptible Boniface VIII was Pope. He was a notoriously corrupt man, selling church offices (a process called Simony after Simon from Acts 8, who wanted to purchase the Holy Ghost), adultery, murder because of his adultery, murder because of his politics, and sodomy to name a few charges levied against him. He pushed too far when he issued the Unum Sanctum, stating that Salvation only came with complete subjection to him, the Pope. He began to argue against all kings seeking to expand national borders. He even stole land from rightful owners (more on that and the first Friday the 13^th later). King Phillip IV and his entourage had enough. A campaign was organized against Boniface, which brought his sexual perversion to light. With immediate effect, Boniface excommunicated Phillip and his chief minister of state, Guillaume de Nogaret. In the past, this action proved to be successful as it famously brought Henry IV to his knees at Canossa. It backfired with Phillip, who sent an army to demand Boniface’s resignation. He refused to resign, prompting a slap in the face, and a further three day beating. A few months later, in utter humiliation, as well

as kidney stones, Boniface died.

Phillip IV moved the Papacy out of “wicked” Rome to Avignon, France so he could watch and control it. For roughly seventy years, the Papacy was French, when in 1377 the comic farce really began.