>War of the Austrian Succession – 1744/Second Silesian War

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France, though already involved on a limited scale, became completely embroiled in Europe’s expanding war. Frederick II needed help against Austria’s successful backlash. Louis XV was certainly up for the cause against his generational enemy. France and Prussia agreed a new, more encompassing treaty. War against Austria was promptly declared in 1744, which not only added to Austria’s foes, but also to her friends, as Great Britain came to Austria’s aid.

French officers designed a plan to knock England out of the war early, and then punish Austrian intransigence. A new Jacobite uprising was to be sent into England, and James Stuart – another Stuart claimant – was to be installed as King of England. Typical of so many other invasion attempts, weather played an imposing role. Cataclysmic storms destroyed much of the landing craft, and many lives were lost in the Channel. Further plans to invade were scrapped, and France turned to the eastern front. Louis XV personally commanded 90,000 men, who were to invade Belgium. French aggression was successful, and Ypres as well as well as Menin fell to Louis XV. From this point in 1744, both armies tried to outmaneuver one another. The British Alliance (Britain, the Netherlands, Hannover, Austria, and other lesser German provinces) gained an upper hand when Prince Charles advanced upon Phillipsburg, and cut off the new Marechal Coigny’s supplies. Marechal Coigny responded in kind, and fought through the British Alliance’s lines toward Strasbourg. Louis XV, realizing what was taking place along the Rhine river, broke from attempting to invade Belgium. In a coordinated effort, Louis XV and Frederick II marched into the Alsace-Lorraine region. Austria was severely stretched beyond military limits, and could not oppose the Prussian march. Frederick II captured Prague by September 1744.

Maria Theresa again employed emotional panic to raise a much needed army. A second Hungarian insurrection accompanied with Austrian diplomacy raised both defensive as well as offensive forces. Saxony switched alliances and joined Austria. Meanwhile, Prince Charles shrank from French power, but was spared casualty, because of the debacle at Metz regarding Louis XV’s illness and his mistress, Madame de Chateauroux. Frederick tried to shadow Prince Charles, but his attempts overextended the Prussian position. Hungarian insurrectionists inflicted a number of minor defeats against the Prussian King, who fell back upon Prague. By the time Frederick had reached Prague, Prince Charles rejoined battle and surrounded Frederick’s position. Frederick had to surrender Prague, as the Prussians retreated back into Silesia late in 1744. France finally stabilized enough to capture Freiburg, and attempt another Belgian invasion. The next year, 1745, was to be an eventful one, full of major engagements.

 

>War of the Austrian Succession – Introduction

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France was soon to realize that she would have a new and great enemy, Prussia. As it was Prussia was just one of the many kingdoms that comprised the Holy Roman Empire. However, with the rise of Frederick Willelm I and Frederick II, Prussia was at this time an emerging power. She needed France’s help against the old French enemy, the Habsburgs, who controlled the Holy Roman Empire. Frederick Willelm I and Frederick II were Hohenzollerns, a powerful northern German house. They decried succession proceedings, which sought to install Maria Theresa upon all of her father’s, Emperor Charles VI, thrones, except the Holy Roman Empire. The Empire had never had a Queen, and Maria Theresa was not to become an Empress. The issue, according to Frederick II, was the Salic Law – which provided only for male succession to the Imperial title, and not the husband of an Austrian Queen.

Charles VI realized issues would arise after his death. He knew that Maria Theresa could not claim the Emperor’s throne, so he willed his lands to his daughter, but desired his son-in-law Francis-Stephen to become Emperor. Charles skillfully outmaneuvered most diplomats, and secured acceptance of the Pragmatic Sanction in 1713. Decades later, the accepted Pragmatic Sanction was breeched as Frederick II invaded Silesia. Frederick claimed that the 200 year old Treaty of Brieg granted Prussia the Duchy of Brieg. Frederick hoped to expose feminine weakness in Maria Theresa as a ruler. Other rulers soon followed Frederick’s lead, such as Bavaria’s Charles Albert who in turn claimed the Imperial throne. Maria Theresa was not weak, but she needed help, fast.

Prussia had long been at peace, but this did not mean she was weak. Frederick Willem I created one of the modern world’s first professional armies. He organized and drilled the Prussian military constantly, which meant they were ready for war at a moment’s notice. Other European armies still had to be levied from militias, which could take weeks to months to form and train. As a result, Prussia invaded Silesia with no opposition, and no opposition would arrive for months. Prussian military forces occupied all of Silesia, thus doubling Prussia’s size and natural resource capacity. Wisely, Prussian soldiers treated this newly occupied territory humanely. Though quartering was necessary, and done, those quartered troops did not loot, rape, and murder any of the Silesians.

Against the soon to die Cardinal Fleury’s wishes, Louis XV desired to enter this war. Louis had hoped, as did other monarchs, to cash in on Habsburg weakness. Fleury was not so sure Austria was weak. No matter, in 1741 France allied itself with the Anti-Austrian cause, which included Prussia, Spain, Bavaria, Saxony, and other lesser states. Maria Theresa also had allies, powerful ones such as England, Russia, and the Netherlands. The Silesian War, as Prussia’s invasion was called, soon included the War of Jenkins’ Ear between England and Spain, and almost all of Europe’s nations. The war would not be contained to just Europe, but it was spread to the New World as well, where it became known as King George’s War. Louis, by the end, certainly should have listened to his former tutor, and now dead Prime Minister Cardinal Fleury.

 

>Louis XV’s Ladies

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Though Louis enjoyed a few years of happiness with his Polish wife, who bore 10 children in almost as many years to Louis, he claimed to be bored. His claimed to be bored with everything, war, politics, economics, learning… There were only two things of which Louis was not bored, hunting and women, which for Louis both exploits were often combined.

Louis’ adultery was quickly uncovered, not that he tried to hid his lechery. Marie began complaining to her father Stanislas about Louis’ promiscuity in 1734. Louis had begun sleeping with Madame de Mailly. He then chose de Mailly’s younger sister Madame de Vintimille, and continued through the family of sisters with Marie-Anne de Mailly. Queen Marie could not tolerate, nor handle Louis’ debauchery, so she turned to the Catholic Church for solace. Louis, not satisfied found more women. He found many other women common and aristocratic alike. In 1744, Louis created a firestorm when he departed for the front to take command of the French Army during the War of the Austrian Succession. Louis invited his then mistress, the Madame de Chateauroux, along for the trip. Initial responses were openly negative, especially as Louis somewhat flaunted his infidelity. Matters grew worse for Louis, who fell deathly ill at Metz. The French began a campaign of national prayer for their monarch, but the King’s First Chaplain Monsignor de Fitz-James would only grant Louis absolution if Louis renounced his adultery. Louis refused to do so. His confession was then announced and published publicly, which greatly affected Louis’ reputation. Madame de Chateauroux fled the scene, and endured much animosity from French mobs. Louis returned to health, and in spite of his amorous pursuits, earned the title “The Beloved”, because he escaped what seemed to be certain death.

Regardless of Louis’ near death experience, he continued to be bored, and continued to seek sex. Many women came and went, but one Jeanne-Antionette Poisson, a commoner, caught Louis’ long-term affection. Poisson was later made the Marquis de Pompadour. She, ironically, met Louis at a masque for the Dauphin’s, the future Louis XVI’s, marriage celebration. Pompadour’s family was caught up in political intrigue, especially in the realm of finance, and was somewhat culpable for the previous minister Louis de Bourbon’s dismissal. Pompadour was everything Louis desired, beauty, intellect, poise, power, exciting. Had it not been for her commoner status, Louis would have chosen Pompadour for a wife instead of a mistress. His involvement with Pompadour was widely known, but also widely condemned as she was not aristocratic like all of Louis’ previous paramours. In spite of Pompadour’s birth, she in a manner of speaking, ran France through Louis’ lusts. She had many appointees accepted in the government, while in turn destroying other government official’s careers. She had the successful Comptroller General Philibert Orry as well as the Secretary of the Navy Maurepas dismissed from office in favor of her own candidates. Pompadour solidified her power by moving into one of the apartments at Versailles. Louis XV spent considerable time with his mistress, even after she fell ill and could no longer sleep with the king. Louis kept her opinions close, and sought her advice often until her death in 1764.

Pompadour had a lasting influence upon France through the arts. She helped to secure funding for many French artists, architects, and philosophers. Voltaire was counted as being among her friends for instance. She was certainly responsible for creating the style attached to Louis XV’s name, and may boast responsibility for erecting the Place Louis XV (presently the Place de la Concorde) as well as the Ecole Militaire. She obtained an immense collection of furniture, porcelain, and other art objects, which have today become highly prized. Louis could care less about all of that, he had his mistress. When sex was no longer an option, Louis stepped further into wickedness. He began to visit the Parc-aux-Cerfs and importuned prostitutes to sleep with him. His reputation for women grew, and today it can be difficult for one to decipher truth from myth. He did have many rendezvous with one notable woman Marie-Louise O’Murphy, who did have some influence over Louis, but nothing as great as Madame de Pompadour’s control.

Louis would have rather done nothing but hunt and sleep with women during his monarchy. For this attitude France would greatly suffer an unendurable amount of setbacks. Problems arose immediately after Louis’ last Prime Minister, Cardinal Fleury died in 1743. War broke out, and Louis had no idea how to fight, nor did he have a clue about how to govern a kingdom.

 

>Louis XV’s Youth

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Phillippe’s regency was ruled well enough, excepting the Mississippi Bubble. He desired to maintain peace throughout Europe, most especially within France’s own borders. He underwent secret meetings to ally France with recent enemies England and the Netherlands. Such agreements were made, and Austria soon joined the “Triple” Alliance thus creating a “Quadruple” Alliance. Spain under Louis XIV’s grandson Phillip V, however, would prove to be a nuisance. Phillip renounced his previous denunciation to the French throne, causing a small stir. French and Spanish armies even came to blows in Sicily, as Phillip desired to gain what was lost with the Treaty of Utrecht.

Phillippe would not live to see Franco-Spanish tensions conclude. He died in 1723. Louis XV also turned 13 during this time, which meant no more regency, yet he was still too immature to govern. A Prime Minister was chosen, Duke Louis of Bourbon, who was a man of no strong nor sound character. He deferred much of his judgment to a mistress Madame de Prie. Madame de Prie quickly imposed her opinions. She did not like the idea of Louis XV marrying the Spanish Infanta with whom Louis was betrothed. De Prie began searching Europe for a better choice, and found one in Poland’s Marie Leszcynska. It was hoped that Leszcynska and Louis would quickly have children and thus end Spain’s successional desires upon the French throne. This decision and choice were to be Louis de Bourbon and his mistress’ greatest contribution, as Louis XV dismissed Louis de Bourbon in 1726. Louis XV chose his tutor the 73 year old Cardinal Fleury as Prime Minister.

Fleury was an able minister. He was well beloved by Louis, and respected by the French. His domestic and foreign policies was also undertaken with diligence, which helped to re-establish France for a time. (Louis would undo all of that soon enough). Fleury opposed the Jansensists, who were losing power amongst the clergy, but gaining power with the commoner. Jansenists were congregating in the Saint Medard Cemetery, because it had been viewed as a place of miracles. Fleury outlawed the meetings, but the Jansenists remained defiant. Turmoil grew, especially against the Jesuits, but for the time being no clear action ended the Jansenist fight.

Because Fleury desired to maintain peace, France could continue to rebuild herself after years of Louis XIV’s wars. Yet, Fleury could not keep France out of war altogether. Because alliances were made, France was obligated to become involved either for or against Spain or England. When the War of Jenkin’s Ear broke out, Fleury involved France against England, but only on the seas. Fleury was trying to wrest some control away from the now dominant British Royal Navy. France fought one other war during Fleury’s Ministry, the War of Polish Succession. Louis’ Father-in-Law, Stanislas Leszcynska, realized a new opportunity to regain the Polish throne after Augustus II died in 1733. A Diet elected Stanislaw as King; however, a rival Diet elected Frederick Augustus to be the Polish King. Fleury was not for any involvement in this conflict, but Louis XV was. Extremely advanced in age, and with no vigor to withstand Louis XV, Fleury capitulated to Louis’ demands. Louis had hoped to gain Lorraine from this war, while putting his Father-in-Law back upon the Polish throne. Frederick Augustus, however, easily won victory over Stanislas and Louis. The French, however, realized the impending danger of Habsburg power sharing a border with France. French troops invaded and occupied Lorraine. The initial gusto for war soon waned and European diplomats reached an agreement at the Treaty of Vienna in 1735. Stanislas was given Lorraine as his duchy, with the provision that upon Stanislas’ death, France would assume control of the region. Aside from these two involvements, no other war plagued France under Fleury.

Fleury’s predilection for peace allowed an unparalleled French growth period. True Louis XIV and Jean-Baptiste Colbert brought France to lofty heights, but Fleury accomplished much more with much less. He had to rebuild France after Louis XIV’s wars and John Law’s disastrous economic experiment. Fleury appointed Philibert Orry as Comptroller General. Orry earned a stern reputation as the “Bull set loose in Versailles Park.” His disregard for rich and poor alike allowed Orry to make untainted decisions, and ultimately benefited France as a whole. He instituted the Corvee, a sort of welfare taxation system that demanded the poor to work for the Crown anwhere between 8 and 40 days a year building and repairing highways. Such a system built the greatest road network in Europe, but did not cost the Crown any money. Orry made certain that none of the Corvee would be used for any Royal expenditure, but the Crown would not need extra money; Orry balanced the budget. No one had been able to balance France’s budget for decades, not even Jean-Baptiste Colbert. Orry’s reputation could only grow, and it did. He re-established the French currency after the Mississippi Bubble, and drastically increased French Mercantilist exploits. France became rich again, but it was not to last.

 

>John Law’s Mississippi Bubble

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Louis XIV’s France was financially strapped upon his death. Due to immense political intrigue, Louis’ nephew – and son-in-law – Phillippe Duke of Orleans became Louis XV’s regent. His regency was disastrous almost from the start, but widely differing accounts shift much of the blame to Louis XIV’s lengthy expansionistic wars. What cannot, and consequently is not, debated was Phillippe’s unprecedented foolish involvement with the Scottish economist John Law.

Law was born to a Scottish goldsmith and banker in the late 1600’s. He showed mathematical genius from an early age, and tried to use that mental aptitude to get ahead while gambling. He quickly gambled the family fortune away, however, while also chasing women. Law, trying to guard his “honor”, challenged a duel over one of his many women. He killed his opponent, and was tried for murder. Law was found guilty and sent to prison – not like today’s prison; prison usually was a death sentence during Law’s day. Law escaped from his holding cell and fled to Louis XIV’s France, and for the next few years, Law would frequently travel between The Netherlands and France. While in Paris, Law became acquainted with Phillippe, Duke of Orleans, at a card game. Phillippe, soon to become the French Regent, realized Law’s “potential” after Law produced and published two economic treatises The Scarcity of Theory Value and Real Bill Doctrine, which argued for a fiat currency system.

When Phillippe became Regent, he realized the dire financial circumstances that France was experiencing. Law, using his connection with Phillippe, approached the Regent at court and advanced his theories to fix the faltering French economy. (So poor was the economy that taxes could not cover the interest on French war debts!) Law was granted a bank, Banque General, almost on the spot by Phillippe, who watched Law closely. The Bank began to print paper currency, which was in theory supported by the Bank’s assets in precious metals. Law wanted to expand (ie. Inflate) the French currency in order to increase commerce. He believed the only way to do such an operation was wean the economy off of traditional value sources, such as Gold and Silver. The French Government rallied behind Law’s scheme and further granted him a monopoly over New World trade. The Compagnie d’Occident (Company of the West) was founded to govern trade along the Mississippi River in 1717. A dual monetary system was established within the company, beaver skins in the north and precious metals in the south. To ensure the company’s success, Law was granted a charter for 25 years, in which time Law promised to populate and settle the Mississippi River basin. The French as a result began calling the company the “Mississippi Company.” Law had to finance his plan, so he put his paper currency scheme to work.

Law began selling shares to finance the Mississippi Company’s operations. He sought cash and state bonds, for which he offered extremely low interest rates. This action in theory was to bolster French finances, while funding his company. Traditional French aristocrats hoped to get rich off of Law’s scheme, but get rich in gold and silver, not cash. The common classes also saw an opportunity as cash was cheap, and credit was blindly extended to the masses. The French Government further aided Law’s ideas by granting him a monopoly over tobacco trade in Africa. The Banque General was also nationalized and renamed the Banque Royal in 1719. Law was still in charge, but now his paper money was backed by the French Crown. One final boon set Law over the top, he was granted more trade monopolies throughout the French Colonial Empire, this time in Asia. Law renamed his Mississippi Company the Compagnie des Indes, which now controlled all French trade outside of Europe.

With no ceiling to Law’s growing influence, he purchased the right to mint French coinage. These coins would have no precious metals in them, which put Law’s theories into full action. Law next assumed legal control over French taxation, as his financial power began to resemble Louis XIV’s governmental authority. By 1720 all financial institutions were under Law’s supreme command. Phillippe bestowed the title “Controller General and Superintendent General of Finance. Success seemed to breed success, but it was all a mirage. He continued to print paper money to fund his growing financial empire. That paper money was guaranteed and founded upon government debt, which grew rapidly.

Initial shares of the Mississippi Company were sold for 500 Livres (French currency at the time). The shares value quickly expanded, which brought speculators from all over France and Europe into Paris’ financial district. This became a scary sight for the Parisians, and Phillippe had to order police into the district to maintain control. Within the first year of existence the price per share had increased dramatically from 500 Livres to 10,000 Livres – 190%. Many people aristocratic and commoner alike became Millionaires, as the French termed this new wealthy class. Inflation, however, soon caught up to Law’s scheme. He continued to print more paper money, and the value of the shares, though high denominationally, became increasingly devalued monetarily. Those who realized the falling trend began trading paper money for precious metals. Law could not allow the sell off, so he issued a restriction on pay outs – no payment in gold above 100 Livres. Law further made his paper currency “legal tender”, and people began using worthless money to pay off debts and taxes. Law’s bank also offered to trade the paper currency for shares in the Mississippi Company for the 10,000 Livres standard. In one fell swoop, Law doubled French currency, and further devalued the already worthless “money.” Soon, rates of inflation were above 20% a month by January 1720. That’s right, all of this took place in under one year.

Law further compounded the increasingly dire situation when he devalued the Mississippi Company’s shares. He cut the value of bank notes by 50%, which sparked a frenzied offloading period. Investors tried to sell their declining shares to any idiot that could be found. Shares purchased at 10,000 Livres were now being sold for 2,000 Livres in September 1720, then 1,000 Livres in December 1720, and finally back to 500 Livres in January 1721. Fortunes were hastily made, then disastrously lost within the space of months. Before Law was dismissed in March 1721, he ordered the French currency to be devalued another 50%, which pushed the French back into buying precious metals. There was not enough precious metals to support the behemoth fiat structure; however, and Law outlawed any precious metals exchange. He offered paper money rewards to anyone who would expose precious metals trading. Many were found guilty and killed for this exchange, which was the last straw. Law fled France for Venice a broken and poor man. He died in Venice 8 years later in 1729 in poverty. France needed decades to overcome this economic debacle, thought it never really did overcome Law’s meteoric rise and subsequent fall.

 

>18th. Century Europe – through Louis XV’s France

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After Louis XIV died, Europe boldly moved into a new era. France now had Louis XV, England saw George I ascend to the throne, Spain was rapidly declining, Russia started to emerge under Peter the Great, Sweden all but disappeared from the world stage, German princes became increasingly powerful, the Dutch entered a dangerous peacetime, and the Popes were marginalized. Such a wide spectrum cannot be fully covered here and now, but for the continued narrative, lets remain focused upon France. France was still the most powerful and most influential nation in Europe at the beginning of the 18^th century. It would remain equally as influential and more powerful at the end of the century; however, for all of the wrong reasons.

Louis XV was crowned King of France on September 1, 1715, immediately after Louis XIV died, according to French tradition “Le Roi est mort. Vivre le Roi.” The new Louis inherited an immense kingdom that touched Europe, Asia, Africa, and the New World. His was a time of immense promise, for which Louis XV became popular and was affectionately titled “Louis the Beloved.” However, the new Louis was no old Louis. He did not have the intellect that Louis XIV possessed, nor did he have the brash style that made his grandfather famous. Instead, Louis XV possessed insolence; a highly destructive insolence that ran France into poverty through financial blunder after financial blunder. Louis would follow up his blunders with severe losses overseas. Louis XIV could rule without much help, as he liked, but Louis XV needed all the help he could muster. Yet, one of Louis XIV’s lasting legacies was that the French King was absolute, that is the King is Law. Even if Louis was offered advice, which he was often, Louis XV did not have to heed it, as he seldom did. Louis realized many of his mistakes all too late, as is attributed to him with the phrase “Apres moi, le deluge”, that is “After me, the flood.” What steps led Louis to such a tragic reflection of his life and his future?

 

>Louis’ Death and Legacy

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Louis died of gangrene on September 1, 1715, just 4 days shy of his 77^th birthday. He had been King of France for 72 years. He was preceded in death by the next heirs apparent, which left Louis’ grandson, the 5 year old Louis Duke of Anjou, as next heir to the French throne. Louis XIV undertook a series of legal proceedings to ensure Louis XV’s success. He tried to alienate potential conflicts, and hinder opposition. Regardless, Louis’ attempts were largely nullified once he was dead. Louis the Duke of Anjou did become king, but his minority was not carried out the way that Louis XIV had desired. Regardless of his unheeded desires concerning Louis XV, Louis XIV did leave an immense legacy for his grandson, and a powerful kingdom to illustrate such a legacy.

Depending on bias, Louis was either the greatest French, even European, king ever. Or, Louis was the embodiment of pure tyranny. Louis arrogantly claimed “L’Etat, c’est moi”, that is “I am the state.” He truly worked the entire French political and in large part religious structure around his throne. Much of this could not have been done had it not been for Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, whose tireless statecraft created a strong monarchy, which Louis exploited to the fullest. Louis, after the Frondes, obliterated once powerful feudal concerns, and castrated all aristocratic power, though the aristocrats did not realize it at the time. Louis quelled all civil wars, and even had anti-Catholic support for some time, until the revocation of Nantes – his singular greatest blunder.

Though previously civil war ravaged France had been pacified and unified, Louis still kept Frenchmen fighting. His numerous wars were a mixed bag of success and failure, again depending on which view one could take. Louis was either the master warrior who expanded French borders, military might, and projected power globally. France during and immediately after Louis was feared, exactly what Louis wanted. However, Louis’ wars came at a cost. He impoverished the government, brought hardship upon the increasingly burdened bourgeois, and hampered the once burgeoning French economy. He won some territory, and lost others, especially to an increasingly powerful England. French wars did not severely plague the French elite, who after Louis XIV invested in the Mississippi Company and then lost all their money. John Law’s infamous stock swindle hurt France much more than Louis’ pride.

Louis stylized a profound French art. His funding as previously penned, is solely responsible for the lasting legacy of plays, art, and architecture. Louis’ name is borne upon anything produced during his vast reign. Beauty was without a doubt one of Louis’ achieved goals, as time has consistently attested. And for some time France remained supreme in all artistic aspects, until a new art, impressionism, re-established French artistic hegemony, and further built upon Louis’ legacy.

Louis’ centralized government was hugely successful, but to remain successful, France needed another Louis XIV. Louis’ grandson was incapable of his grandfather’s greatness. Louis XVI proved to be even more inept. On this notion, Louis did spur French greatness as immediate evidence proved; however, Louis’ enduring legacy was on that could not be managed. France fell into a period of decline after the War of the Spanish Succession and John Law’ “Mississippi Bubble”, which led to serious problems, and ultimately the French Revolution before the century closed. France would not have a leader on Louis XIV’s level until Napoleon, yet the results were predictably the same. Bottom line – Without Louis, France would have remained in Feudal/Religious Civil War, yet With Louis, France was on path for Revolution. For now, Louis was dead, long live the King – Louis XV.

 

>Nine Years’ War, Part 1

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Louis’ religious, domestic, and international policies worried Europe. Because Louis had angered so many heads of state, France found itself surrounded by a growing anti-French alliance.

Religiously, France should have had Catholic and Holy Roman Imperial support, because Louis was pro-Catholic. His revoking the Edict of Nantes in 1685 was certainly accepted by the Pope and his realm; however, Louis supported a more “Gallic” (French) church separate from the Pope. He maneuvered political and religious power in such a way that offended traditional Catholic lines. Money was to go to Paris, not Rome. Allegiance, though to the church, was more to the king chosen by God. Louis’ arrogance was an affront. Also, France had been locked in conflict with the Habsburgs, the controlling Imperial family, for decades. Emperor Leopold I, therefore, set about creating an alliance against Louis’ increasing power. Regardless, Louis was not too concerned with Leopold after the War of the Reunions, because Leopold was hindered by the belligerent Ottoman Turks. Louis had another, more dangerous threat to the north and soon east – William of Orange.

The Edict of Nantes also had other affects. With many Huguenots fleeing France for England, Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, any remaining pro-French opinion was lost. The Netherlands especially favored France against William of Orange’s cries. That all changed as fellow Protestants were being massacred, and Dutch merchanting being attacked. The powerful Dutch merchant class stood against William’s French opinion for almost a decade, but no longer. The Dutch were also concerned with the then Catholic King of England, James II. Opinion rightly believed Louis and James, Louis’ cousin, to be closer than James and William, James’ nephew and son-in-law. Such a Catholic alliance would be disastrous to the Dutch, who began backing William against French aggression. England, who had been dealing with her own religious issues, was decidedly anti-Catholic, yet had a Catholic king in James II. When the Huguenots began arriving in England and English colonies, James was left in a precarious position – support Louis and lose the kingdom, or support the Huguenots and lose the religious battle? Louis’ increasing mercantile/imperial stance answered James’ question for him, as the French and English colonizing companies came to blows in North America.

When Huguenots fled to Germany, many German princes accepted the influx with open arms. The Elector of Brandenburg went so far as to issue the Edict of Potsdam, which invited Huguenots. Louis’ action effectively broke any German alliances he had previously created. In turn German princes, increasingly fearful, halted current conflicts both domestically and abroad, to enter into a new alliance, the League of Augsburg. The offer was extended and accepted by William of Orange, as well as Spain and Sweden. The Pope, Innocent XI, even secretly supported this mixed alliance against a Catholic son, because Louis did not aid against the Turks.

The stage was set. All that was needed was a spark to ignite the fire. Louis and his ministers were happy to oblige. A French force was sent toward Philippsburg on September 27, 1688. The desired outcome was to strike fear into the Germans, which would force submission, while also reinvigorating the Turks, who were being crushed by Leopold I. The plan backfired.

 

>Thirty Years’ War, Swedish Phase, Part 1

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With the Catholics and the Holy Roman Empire firmly in control, arrogant insolence showed during the diplomatic negotiations following Denmark’s defeat. Emperor Ferdinand II wanted a number of issues brought to pass, such as his son to be in line for the Emperor’s throne. To bring his demands to pass, Ferdinand had to make the electors happy, as well as outside nations, which included Spain and France. Ferdinand’s blunders began almost immediately after Christian IV of Denmark was defeated.

Mistakes abounded first when Denmark received most of her lost territory back, much to Wallenstein’s chagrin, at the Treaty of Lubeck. Denmark simply had to agree that it would not interfere within the Empire. Wallenstein voiced his opinion that such lax treaty terms would prove dangerous, and possibly could bring Sweden into the War. Next, Ferdinand at the behest of a number of his aids, produced the Edict of Restitution, which demanded all lost Catholic territory since the Reformation be returned to Catholic control. The Protestant Electors flatly refused both of Ferdinand’s demands. Catholic Electors also proved to be uneasy with Ferdinand’s growing power. In return for their votes, the Catholic’s wanted Wallenstein removed from army command. They also desired that the army, now large, and unimpeded, be shrunk by two-thirds. Wallenstein and his army were an immense burden on the Empire, as his army lived off of the land, and Wallenstein paid his men through plunder. Their brutality, though reasoned necessary , cost him his support. Ferdinand complied and relieved Wallenstein.

International demands were also made during the process after Denmark capitulated. Spain was aiding the Holy Roman Empire, and the H.R.E. was aiding Spain against the Dutch. When Spain further asked assistance against the Mantuan’s in Northern Italy, France cried foul. The French ambassadors impressed upon the Electors to reduce Imperial military power. When Ferdinand asked the Electors to send support to Spain, the Electors agreed with the French, and stood against Imperial involvement in Spain’s affairs. France was not yet done diplomatically. Spain gained the upper hand against Mantua, and sacked the city in 1630. France panicked and agreed to the Peace of Regensburg; however, Louis XIII would not sign. France was not to be at war, but did not have an army. French ambassadors sought to bring Sweden into an alliance against the Habsburgs of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, but to do so, they had to negotiate peace between Poland and Sweden, who were involved in a separate war. Peace was agreed. With Poland pacified, Sweden mobilized to invade Germany.

Meanwhile, with Wallenstein dismissed, and the army shrunk, Count Tilly was installed as head of the army. He was not ready when Sweden landed in Pomerania. The Empire was uncertain how events would now unfold after such a meaningless few months of diplomacy ended. By the middle of 1630, Wallenstein, who had warned of impending Swedish belligerence, was proved correct. Gustavus Adolphus II, King of Sweden, brought his well trained and experienced army to Stettin, and forced Duke Bogislav XIV at gunpoint to sign a treaty. Bogislav wanted to remain neutral, but Adolphus would have none of it. Immediately, Adolphus proved much more successful than Christian IV or Waldstein during their previous campaigns. Even more amazing is how Adolphus accomplished his goals. He had no allies, but willed his way to power everywhere his army marched. Eventually, Adolphus did find what he craved, an ally with deep pockets – France.

The French, who were now eager to stand opposed to the Habsburgs, were not militarily able to fight, yet. Instead, once Sweden made intentions known by invading, France worked to diplomatically clear the way for Gustavus Adolphus. Adolphus assumed control of the Protestant cause, and France funded Adolphus’ outstanding army with the Treaty of Barwalde. Soon, France would be more directly involved, and Gustavus Adolphus would prove to be a rather successful thorn in the Holy Roman Empire’s flesh.

 

>Goths!

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At the same time that the Roman Empire reached its zenith, it began to show signs of decay. From 186, Marcus Aurelius’ death, to the 300’s swarms of barbarian tribes began to cross the Roman borders taking up residence on Roman land. The main tribe, the Goths, were seeking food and shelter. The Goths were hardly belligerent, yet. They were actually rather weak at this point, because of an invading tribe that entered European history from the East. The Huns, who most believe was a displaced Asian tribe, were looking for new lands after being pushed out of China. The Huns, expert horsemen, quickly moved westward in a swarm of terror, leaving behind destruction and graves. When the Huns appeared across the Russian steppes, the Goths were no match. The Goths had to move, but where could they go? They were pinched between the Huns on the east and Rome on the west. Rome lacked the will to halt the mass immigration and actually helped the Goths resettle, as did the weather. The natural boundary keeping the Goths outside of Roman lands, the Danube river, froze over, and allowed thousands to flee old tribal lands and enter the “civilized” world.

At first, the Romans took advantage of their overlord position, and began to charge the Gothic tribes “rent” so to speak. The Goths obliged, as they found it better to pay Rome, than be killed by the dung-reeking Goths. However, weather again played a part in the later 300’s, as Ammianus Marcellinus records that a bad winter severely hampered Goth farms. Food was now at a dangerous shortage, and the Goths began to appear in Roman towns, much to Roman racist chagrin. With no income from their farms, no money to pay Rome, and racist abuse, the Goths became dangerous.

Maybe the Romans should have read Karl Marx’ statement, “If you control the food, you control the people.” Certainly, this backfired, as famine drove the Goths to war with Rome beginning in 376. The Emperor, Valens, who helped resettle the Goths in Roman territory was now fighting the new immigrants. With nothing to lose, and all to gain, the Goths printed their names boldly into World History’s annals. Immediately the Goths became a scourge in the Balkans spreading terror throughout the remaining Eastern and Western Roman Empires. Valens called upon the West for help, but the help that arrived caused no change in outcome. Valens’ military was being stretched too thin as he was also fighting in Syria. All the Romans could do was fight small battles hoping to derail Gothic intentions, until Valens brought a full force of approximately 50,000 Roman soldiers to the Greek town of Adrianople.

Roman military might was still in reality the best in the world, but Roman secrets were now being learned by all Barbarian tribes. With Rome losing her will to fight, becoming more “civilized”, and certainly more arrogant, Barbarians were hired to fill Roman ranks. Such new understanding influenced an amazing outcome. When Valens moved to meet King Fritigern of the Goths, the Gothic plan was clearly understood – make it hard for the Romans to move. On August 9, 378, Valens took the offensive, but his army was not well commanded nor organized. Fritigern was not ready for a battle, and began to stall. He entered negotiations to exchange hostages. Rome was in no mood for this. The Goths then began to burn the surrounding lands, sending smoke into Roman ranks, causing more anger and confusion. Valens continued his offensive to the Gothic wagon lager (camp). At this moment, the Gothic cavalry, for which Fritigern was stalling to make time, arrived. They easily pushed the Roman cavalry from the battlefield, leaving Roman infantry flanks unprotected. Gothic cavalry then began to attack the exposed infantry flanks compacting the Roman Army. This maneuver made it difficult or impossible for the heavily armored Roman legion to fight effectively. The mass chaos that followed saw 30,000 Romans die. This was the worst Roman defeat since Hannibal at Cannae in 216 BC. Emperor Valens was ignominiously killed. Some sources say he was killed in battle, and his body was never found. Others say he was driven from battle, surrounded in a house, and burned to death.

Such a defeat had more lasting effects. Western Rome was now unprotected by Eastern Rome. A Gothic army, led by Theodoric, then proceeded to invaded Rome itself in 410 (more on this later). Rome was now plundered, and shamed. It never recovered, and fell in 476 to another Goth, Odoacer. Goths now had complete freedom to settle anywhere in the vast, prosperous Western Empire, and did. They established powerful kingdoms in France, Spain, and Italy. The Eastern Empire, coped with this, and eventually flourished one more time under Justinian, even reclaiming some of the lost Roman lands for a time. Yet, with Western Roman power broken, and Europe in turmoil, a Dark Age descended as Ancient Civilization was coming to an end.